Roman Art Final Exam Study Guide



Roman Art: Test 2 Study Sheet 

 Section 1- Antonines 

Bust-Antoninus Pius

 -Carved around 140

 -The emperor is wearing a cuirass and paludamentum

 -Pupils were drilled like late Hadrianic portraits

 -His mature features are blemishless

-Never aged in his portraits

Bust-Faustina the Elder 

 -Probably displayed as a pair with Antoninus’s sculpture.

 -Her large eyelids are characteristics of other members of the Antonine family.

 -Depicted as mature, butt ageless

 -Like the women of the Trajanic household, not like the goddess like Sabina

-Mother like image

Bust-Faustina the Younger

 -Carved soon after she had given birth but still young looking.

 -Her coiffure is parted with a bun in the back.

 -Hair style is closer to Sabina, not Faustina the elder.

 -Abundant amount of portraiture, because Pius was proud

Bust-Marcus Aurelius 

 -Wore his beard longer than Hadrian or Antoninus Pius

 -Same coiffure as a prince

 -Attired in a cuirass and paludamentum

<p style="margin-bottom:13.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"> -Representation of him in his 50’s

<p style="margin-bottom:13.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"> -Shadows produced with a drill through his hair and beard.

<p style="margin-bottom:13.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">

<p style="margin-bottom:13.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none">

Bust-Commodus 

<p style="margin-bottom:13.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-size:13.0pt;font-family:"Helvetica","sans-serif"; color:#2C2C2C">-Commodus was a tyrannical ruler like Nero.

<p style="margin-bottom:13.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-size:13.0pt;font-family:"Helvetica","sans-serif"; color:#2C2C2C">-Commodus was commonly represented as Hercules

<p style="margin-bottom:13.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-size:13.0pt;font-family:"Helvetica","sans-serif"; color:#2C2C2C">-In his left hand is the apples of the Hesperides, which Hercules had to get as his last labor

<p style="margin-bottom:13.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-size:13.0pt;font-family:"Helvetica","sans-serif"; color:#2C2C2C">-Supporting the statue are two kneeling amazons

<span style="font-size:13.0pt;font-family:"Helvetica","sans-serif"; color:#2C2C2C">-Shows the emperor as a source of plenty.

Pedestal of Pius 

-The decursio reliefs break strongly from Classical convention.

-The ground is the whole surface of the panel and the figures are shown on floating pieces of earth.

-This had only occurred in freeman art, not imperial art.

-In the Antonine period, they had become dissatisfied with the rules of Classical design.

-Even though Classical Style waned, it never disappeared until the fall of the Roman empire.

Aurelius’ Clemency Panel

-The sculptor made extensive use of the drill for the beards and hair of the people

-Is an expanded narrative of the contemporaneous equestrian portrait.

-The emperor, surrounded by soldiers, is in his bust portrait in the Museo Capitolino.

-The emperor extends his hand granting mercy to kneeling barbarians.

-The relief is very high, with some arms and legs carved fully in the round.

Aurelius’ Sacrificial Panel 

-Marcus performs the rites in honor of Jupiter after the conclusion of a successful military campaign in front of the god’s chief temple.

-It’s in front of the Capitoline Hill in Rome, recognized by the three doors to the three cellars of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva.

-Various attendants and personnel of the Senate occupy the emperor.

-The upper portions of the panel was reserved for the depiction of the setting of the action, a generic forest on the northern frontier.

-As in the clemency panel, the figures occupy only the lower two-thirds of the relief.

Column of Aurelius: Adlocutio Spiral Frieze 

-The emperor is the frontal figure of a triad.

-The emperor is looking at the viewer.

-He does not address the troops.

-He is detached from his context and become almost an iconic figure.

-This conception of the emperor would soon become the norm in imperial sculpture.

Insula of Diana

-It gets its name from a large terracotta plaque representing the goddess that was on display in the courtyard.

-Insulae were usually 3 to 5 stories high and featured ground-floor shops that opened onto the sidewalk.

-In general, the format was that the apartments got smaller the higher the floors. It was right down the street from the Capitolium.

-The apartments featured false balconies, perhaps for firefighters to access.

-It was a relatively upscale building, with a fountain and cistern in the courtyard. Cooking was done in the common corridor.

Vendor Relief 

-Small painted terracotta plaques of many Isola Sacra tombs.

-They immortalized the lives and professions of many people.

-This one depicts a vegetable seller behind a counter.

-Vegetables sellers weren’t the worst off, but they weren’t the best off.

Midwife Relief

-Another Isola Sacra tomb plague shows a woman delivering a baby.

-She’s looking at the viewer instead of on her task and since it was honoring professions, the plaque was probably about the midwife.

-The product of modest talent, the plaques are very different from the imperial art.

Mars and Venus Portraits 

-The portrait depicts a man and woman as the deities Mars and Venus.

-The body types are based on the famous portraits of Ares and Aphrodite.

-The woman bears a remarkable resemblance to Faustina the Younger.

-It is another example of the persistent eclecticism and stylistic diversity of Roman art.

Niobid Sarcoph 

<p style="margin-bottom:13.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"> -One of the earliest datable 2nd century sarcophagi

<p style="margin-bottom:13.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"> - It is the standard Western style with a sloping lid and reliefs of the front and sides but not on the back.

<p style="margin-bottom:13.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"> - It features Apollo and Artemis slaying Niobe’s children with arrows because she had boasted that she had more children than Leto.

<p style="margin-bottom:13.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"> - On the short end of the sarcophagus, Niobe and her husband mourn for the loss of their children.

-It depicts a scene from Greek mythology, common to Roman tombs.

Hercules Sarcoph 

<p style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"> - Of the Western Roman type, the sculptor of this sarcophagus depicted Hercules as aging as he progressed from one amazing feat to the other. He is shown wearing the Nemean lion and later on with a beard.

<p style="margin-bottom:13.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"> -The front of the coffin shows the first 10 of the 12 labors

<p style="margin-bottom:13.0pt;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"> -The 11th and 12th labors are shown on the sides

-Hercules’ reward for his feats is immortality, which makes him an appropriate theme for a Roman man’s tomb.

Clemency Sarcoph 

-A seated Roman general receives captured northern barbarians, one is kneeling as he’s begging for mercy.

-A female captive and her tearful daughter, probably the supplicant’s daughter and wife, are also present.

-Victory, seminude and holding a palm branch in her left hand, crowns the general with a wreath as he grants clemency with his right hand.

-The general’s head seems to be a specific likeness of the deceased, but may have been a generic portrait of an Antonine man.

-He may have served under Marcus, but he would not have to have served to buy the sarcophagus.

 Section 2-Severans 

Severan Family Portrait 

-A tondo portrait from Egypt depicting the Severan family all posed frontally.

-The artist used tempera (pigments in egg yolk) on wood, a technique common also for second and third century mummy portraits.

-The emperor’s hair is tinged with gray, suggesting that his marble portrait also may have revealed his advancing age in this way.

-Geta’s face was erased after Caracalla had his brother murdered and his family damned.

-It’s a testimony to the far reach of the damntatio memoriae decrees.

Bust-Severus 

<p style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-size:13.0pt;font-family:"Helvetica","sans-serif"; color:#2C2C2C">-This bust of Septimius preserves some of the Antonine looks, including drilled pupils, hair and beard.

<p style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-size:13.0pt;font-family:"Helvetica","sans-serif"; color:#2C2C2C">-However, 4 drilled locks across the forehead now appear.

<p style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-size:13.0pt;font-family:"Helvetica","sans-serif"; color:#2C2C2C">-It is also in the style of the Egyptian god Serapis.

<p style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-size:13.0pt;font-family:"Helvetica","sans-serif"; color:#2C2C2C">-The family had visited a shrine to this god in Memphis in the late 2 <span style="font-size:11.0pt;font-family:"Helvetica","sans-serif"; color:#2C2C2C">nd<span style="font-size:13.0pt;font-family:"Helvetica","sans-serif"; color:#2C2C2C"> century.

<p style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-size:13.0pt;font-family:"Helvetica","sans-serif"; color:#2C2C2C">-It is the most common type of Severan portrait and it underscores his North African roots.

<p style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-size:13.0pt;font-family:"Helvetica","sans-serif"; color:#2C2C2C">-A good example is housed in the Indiana University Art Museum!

'''Bust-J. Domna '''

<span style="font-size:13.0pt;font-family:"Helvetica","sans-serif"; color:#2C2C2C">-This portrait matches the one of Septimius housed in Indiana.

<span style="font-size:13.0pt;font-family:"Helvetica","sans-serif"; color:#2C2C2C">-She was very important, and her status was probably derived from <span style="font-size:13.0pt;font-family:"Helvetica","sans-serif"; color:#850C13">giving birth <span style="font-size:13.0pt; font-family:"Helvetica","sans-serif";color:#2C2C2C"> to potential heirs.

<span style="font-size:13.0pt;font-family:"Helvetica","sans-serif"; color:#2C2C2C">-Her hair is clearly a wig, popular among Roman women at the time.

<span style="font-size:13.0pt;font-family:"Helvetica","sans-serif"; color:#2C2C2C">-Two curls of her real hair can be seen on her temple, protruding from underneath the helmet-like wig.

Bust-Caracalla

<span style="font-size:13.0pt;font-family:"Helvetica","sans-serif"; color:#2C2C2C">-Caracalla’s portraiture marks a break from the Antonine style.

<span style="font-size:13.0pt;font-family:"Helvetica","sans-serif"; color:#2C2C2C">-His hair and beard were worn so short that the sculptor decided to show this with negative carving rather than relief.

<span style="font-size:13.0pt;font-family:"Helvetica","sans-serif"; color:#2C2C2C">-His suspicious and ruthless nature is very evident in his portraits, as indicated by his deeply furrowed brows and shifting eyes.

<span style="font-size:13.0pt;font-family:"Helvetica","sans-serif"; color:#2C2C2C">-This is one of the breaks from the even-keeled portraiture of Marcus Aurelius.

Bust-Alexander 

-Because of his relatively long tenure as emperor, more portraits of Severus Alexander than of the other rulers of the second quarter of the third century.

-Depicts Alexander when he was still in his teens.

-He wears the style of toga that became the norm in the third century, the toga with contabulatio, the flat band that runs from the left shoulder to right armpit

-The portraits and its many now-lost replicas set the pattern for much of the portraiture of the third century.

-His hair is cut so short that you can see the contours of his skull.

-The sculptor used negative carving for the strands of hair.

Weary Hercules

-Found in the private art collection from the Baths of Caracalla.

-More than 10 feet tall, is signed by the Greek master Lysippos.

-Presented a new model of male perfection who frequented the baths.

-Had a consistent look with Caracalla’s portraiture.

Severan Concordia Relief 

-The imperial family look as Septimus Severus and Caracalla clasp hands in front of Geta in a show of imperial harmony.

-At the time the Lepcis arch was erected, Caracalla had been co-Augustus for five years.

-He was co-consul for the first time with his father, and the sharing of that honor is probably what is commemorated here.

-The triad composition with a central frontal figure was employed in the Lepcis frieze too.

-It is a key feature of what art historians call the Late Antique style.

Severan Processional Relief 

-The Late Antique style, more formal and abstract than Classical naturalism, can be seen in the relief.

-Often called a triumphal procession, this procession probably depicts the homecoming of the Severan family.

-The figures ride in the chariot, the emperor and his two sons, while other figures walk in front of the quadriga and horsemen ride behind it.

-It gives no sense of motion.

-The chariot and the horsemen behind it are moving to the right, but the imperial triad is detached from the procession and all three face the viewer.

-The second roll of figures are floating and are elevated above the heads so they can be seen.

 Section 3—Soldier Emperors 

 Bust-Thrax 

-It can be identified as of the Thracian emperor because of it similarity to his numismatic likeness.

-Captures the intensity of his likeness.

-The head is one of several replicas of the emperor’s official portrait type in which Maximinus turns his head to one side.

-He appears to be lost in thought, disengaged from his physical environment.

-The hair is closely cropped.

-The pupils are drilled, and there are deep lines in his forehead, under his eyes, and mouth

 Bust-Pupienus 

-The finest of his portraits, three months before he was murdered.

-He wears a toga with a contabulatio.

-His uniform is interesting because he was put in charge of the military.

-The deep lines in the forehead and the sideways glance were characteristics of the insecure times.

-Antonine portraiture and half closed eyes.

 Bust-Gordian III 

-Most likely the top half of a full-length bust of the teenage emperor, this bust is a military portrait of a unique format.

-Except for the absence of the beard, it is typical of the era.

-It highlights the emperor’s youth.

-As in other busts contemporary with this one, his hair is short and the locks are incised into the stone. With his head turned sharply to the right, he seems unwilling or unable to look at the viewer.

 Bust-Philip 

-Phillip took the place of Gordian as emperor after his death.

-This togate bust depicts Phillip as first citizen.

-Even though he already had the support of the military, it was important to project the image of a man of the people and how he had control over every sector of the state, similar to Augustus.

-His furrowed brow and scowling expression may reflect the insecurity felt in the time period.

 Bust-Decius 

-Has bags under his eyes and a sad expression.

-In his eyes, which glance to aways, shows a man who can do nothing to restore order.

-The sculptor modeled the marble as if it were pliant clay.

-Compressed the sides of the head at the level of the eyes, eteched the hair and beard into the stone, and chiseled deep lines in the forehead and around the mouth.

-Reveals the anguished soul of the man and the instability of the era.

 Bust-Gallus 

-Larger than life bronze statue.

-Is fully nude except for his military boots and cloak thrown over his left shoulder.

-His physique is like a wrestler.

-The heavy set body dwarfs the nervous head.

-The Greek ideal of the keen mind has given way to the paradox of the strong body and nervous head.

 Bust-Probus 

-Best preserved portrait

-As in other soldier emperors, the hair is very short and rendered mostly by incision.

-The beard is slightly in relief.

-The head is cubicle shaped, with simplified masses, and the large sad eyes.

-Laid the abstract art style for the tetrarchs.

 Bust-Mamaea 

-An important trendsetter, Julia Mamaea, the mother of Severus Alezander, was one of the most powerful women of the era.

-This bust depicts her as a mature woman with a simple, natural hairstyle in the style of Julia Domna’s wig.

-Unlike Julia Domna, this Julia looks away from the viewer.

- It is said that her face reflects the insecurity of the time period.

 Balbinus Sarcoph 

-The coffin has a lid in the form of a kline with a reclining portrait of the emperor and wife.

-The lid portrait is similar to his statue, has a round face and thick neck.

-Does not the meet the gaze off his wife.

-She has a full face and heavy chin.

-Old people often maintained the same hair cut as their younger self.

-The front is a variation of the compositions on Antonine biographical sarcoph.

 Romans and Barbarians Sarcoph 

-Battle scenes were popular sarcophagus themes during this time since it was an era characterized by continuous war.

-This one depicts the Romans fighting who are probably the Goths.

-The figures are very dynamic and emotive and there is little unused space.

- It is an extreme rejection of the Classical perspective.

-We see similar things in the Column of Antoninus Pius, Marcus Arueilus and the Arch of Septimius Severus. It is representative of the dissatisfaction that Latin Imperial artists felt with the Classical style.

 Lion Hunt Sarcoph 

-There was a longstanding tradition in the region that prowess in hunting equated to prowess on the battlefield, so this was not an unusual motif.

-The victory of this Roman general over the lion also symbolizes his victory over death itself, such as a happy afterlife that is free from the troubles of the time period.

 Rhea Silva Sarcoph 

-Depicts the foundation myth of Rome.

-Mars strides in from the left to seduce the vestal virgin Rhea Silva.

-The woman does not dress like her

-She is seminude with a cupid at his her feet.

-The assimilation to Venus is underscored by her presence in the composition.

-Romulus and Remus are being nursed by the she-wolf in the corner.

 Achilles and Penthesilea Sarcoph 

<p style="margin:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:12.35pt;background:#BACDD8; vertical-align:baseline"><span style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:7.0pt; font-family:"Georgia","serif";mso-bidi-font-family:Helvetica;border:none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt:none windowtext 0in;padding:0in">-This work depicts both the fascination with Greek mythology and the turbulence of the time period.

<p style="margin:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:12.35pt;background:#BACDD8; vertical-align:baseline"><span style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:7.0pt; font-family:"Georgia","serif";mso-bidi-font-family:Helvetica;border:none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt:none windowtext 0in;padding:0in">- It depicts a battle in which Achilles stabs the Amazon Queen but falls in love with her too late.

<p style="margin:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:12.35pt;background:#BACDD8; vertical-align:baseline"><span style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:7.0pt; font-family:"Georgia","serif";mso-bidi-font-family:Helvetica;border:none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt:none windowtext 0in;padding:0in">-Unlike earlier depictions, the two do not look at each other but instead of turned away from each other; Penthesilea is already dead.

<p style="margin:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:12.35pt;background:#BACDD8; vertical-align:baseline"><span style="font-size:11.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:7.0pt; font-family:"Georgia","serif";mso-bidi-font-family:Helvetica;border:none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt:none windowtext 0in;padding:0in">-Freestanding busts of the time also had the subject’s head and gaze turned resolutely away from the viewer.

 

 Section IV – The Empire in the 4th C AD (Chs 19-20) 

Medallion - This medallion depicts all four tetrarchs, with each side depicted one of the Augusti and a Caesar. Only the titles distinguish one from the other. They are all dressed similarly with wreaths in their hair and wearing cuirasses. The cubic head, typical of the tetrarchic style, is evident in all four portraits, and very differences exist. The individualized features that are depicted are rather small, such as differences in the noses, but could be a result of imperfections in the engraving. The primary purpose was to depict four tetrarchs, not individuals.

Bust-Galerius - Carved out of porphyry, this purple stone was favored by the tetrarchs because of its color; purple was the color of the high office of Rome. Galerius (if it is him) has a square head, typical of the tetrarchs. As in the portraits of the soldier emperors, the hair is negatively carved on his head and beard, but this time the lines are neatly and evenly drawn. The face is unrealistically symmetrical, and the round and staring eyes give the statue an impersonal and iconic look. All individualization was drained from the portrait.

Tetrarchs – Carved out of porphyry, these portraits once topped freestanding columns. Cubical heads and stocky bodies characterized their shape. No grace or contrapposto remains from the Early and High Empire; in its stead is Late Antique abstraction. The bodies are relatively shapeless. The faces are emotionless masks, differentiated only by facial hair. Paired by twos, each pair depicts one of the Augusti and Caesar as on the medallions.

Victories Decennial Monument – Depicted on the front of the Decennial Monument pedestal, two victories display a shield that wishes the Caesars a happy 10th anniversary. Trophies and barbarian captives also appear, indicating the success of the tetrarchs in protecting the Empire and maintaining internal peace. Perhaps most significantly, the Augusti are depicted as equals with matching columns. The relief is very shallow.

Procession Decennial Monument – Depicted on the left side of the Decennial Monument pedestal, the tetrarchs are portrayed as togated men with contabulatio. In the background, figures carry military standards topped with things such as Jupiter’s eagle and a Victory. The relief is very shallow.

Sacrifice Decennial Monument Depicted on the right side of the Decennial Monument pedestal, a scene shows a pig, sheep and bull being led, and the back depicts the actual sacrifice. The relief is very shallow and relies more on incised lines. Victory places a wreath on the head of a Caesar pouring out a libation from a patera, aided by a depiction of the Senate. This indicates the tetrarch’s senatorial support. Mars, Roma and the Unconquerable Sun are present.

Three Reliefs: Galerian Arch - Took the rare form of an octpylon, an arch with eight piers. Its core was a quadrifons, like the Severan arch. It commemorated Galerius’ victory over King Narses of Persia. While it honored his personal triumph, the other tetrarchs were also honored. The Galerian arch mixes battle scenes and ceremonial scenes.

Maxentius Coin – This coin exemplifies the persistence of the tetrarchic style after Diocletian’s retirement. It labels Maxentius as “Augustus” in opposition to Constantine’s claim for the same title. Frontal heads were relatively rare on ancient coins since the facial features get worn down from being handled. However, facing forward in portraits is consistent with the Late Antique preference for showing the emperors directly facing the viewer. Other than the name, Maxentius’ portrait bears few individual qualities. The face is generic with the standard tetrarchic hair and beard and large staring eyes.

Constantine Coin - Struck 8 years after the nummus, this medallion features a style radically different from the nummus. The young, sole emperor in the West rejected the previous mature style of the tetrarchs in favor of a more youthful one. Therefore, his portraits until his death depicted himself as youthful, reviving the conceited style of Augustus. It also features an interesting duality: Constantine as both a Roman emperor and a soldier of Christ. He is no longer depicted with the scepter of Jupiter; Christian symbolism abounds.

Colossal Constantine - Modeled after Roman images of Jupiter, this enormous marble head once topped an even larger seated body. As in tetrarchic portraiture, his face is emotionless and masklike, featuring unrealistically large eyes. Otherwise, this portrait rejects most of the features of the tetrarchic style. The youthful face harkened back to Augustus while the simple hairstyle was in homage to Trajan. Using these features from relatively happy, stable periods were intentional, forging a connection between Constantine and the emperors of the past rather than of the tetrarchy.

Constantine’s Arch - Erected to commemorate Constantine’s deaf of Maxentius, this arch was the first to commemorate a victory over another Roman rather than a foreigner; Constantine even refers to Maxentius as a “tyrant” in the inscription. Constantine also thanks an unnamed “divinity” for the victory, which certainly refers to the Christian god; however, most of Rome was still overwhelmingly pagan, and Constantine was careful not to offend them while paying homage to his god. Much of the arch was taken from previous buildings and structures. It features sculptures from monuments of Trajan, Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius. The faces were cut to resemble Constantine, however. This can be seen as a decline in creativity of the period but also as Constantine’s desire to connect himself to the emperors of the past, as seen in some of his portraiture.

Arch of Constantine Address – Constantine is depicted addressing the people in the Forum Romanum with the Decennial Monument shown in the background. Statues of Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius appear on either side of the scene, 2 emperors from whom Constantine “borrowed” reliefs. This is one manifestation of Constantine’s desire to be associated with the good emperors of the past. There is some individualization of features but not much.

Arch of Constantine Largesse – Here Constantine is shown distributing money to approaching citizens. Typical of the time period, he is the central figure, elevated above the rest. Stylistically, it is similar to the style of the four enthroned tetrarchs on the Arch of Galerius. It does not depict natural movement but rather mechanical, stylized movement, where each person is performing roughly the same action. A crowd is depicted, not a group of individuals, so there is little individualization of features.

Aula Palatina - Commissioned by Constantine in his palace complex, this basilica-like audience hall was of traditional form. It has a very simple exterior and interior with large windows to provide ample lighting. A chancel arch separated the apse from the main hall, which is where the emperor would sit when receiving foreign dignitaries. The apse and arch would have been covered with marble and mosaics.